Masked by the often extreme and simplistic stereotyping of the Chinese as an ethnic group lies the fact that theirs is an old and complex civilisation marked by cultural richness.

In the conclusion of a two-part report, eminent scholar Prof Wang Gungwu explores, among other issues, the dialect of unity and diversity within the Chinese cultural universe.

He also comments on China's response to modernity since coming into contact with Western forces and ideas in the late 19th century.

Its responses, as well as that of the contemporary Islamic world, may produce different outcomes because the belief-system and historical background are not the same.

Malaysiakini: In Southeast Asia, at least, the general and historical attitude towards China, whatever its ruling regimes and ideologies, has always been an alternate mixture of hope and fear, and also of awe and contempt. Why?

Wang: I think there might have been awe when China was rich and strong. And there was contempt when the European powers were able to do almost what they liked to a very weak and divided China, and when Chinese immigrants were visibly poor, helpless and despearate. When these conditions change (it is still far from certain how long it will take for real changes to alter the general picture of China and the Chinese), contempt may give way to awe again.

But one fact cannot be changed. As long as China is not divided and torn by civil war within, the very fact of its physical size (also of population) is an awesome reality, and China cannot help that. But, in my view, the truly awesome thing would be if the regime in Beijing is successful in bringing long-lasting peace and harmony to its 1.3 plus billion people. Indeed, if that could happen by the second half of this century, it should bring hope for the region rather than fear. But I am generally concerned that there are 'Cold Warriors' who think that the only good thing is to keep China weak and divided, possibly at all costs.

The Chinese as an ethnic community have always been stereotyped in extremis as 'puritanical communists' as well as 'greedy capitalists'. Why?

The Chinese people had suffered enough from their fanatical revolutionary leaders. I [have my] doubts [as to] how many of them were really 'communist'. More likely was that those who used the ideology to support their nationalism could not stop until it was obvious that China's economy had failed utterly. Faced with disaster for themselves, their party and the country, they reversed themselves. Then they realised how popular that was for the enterprising among their people.

Now that the leaders can see how readily their people can become 'greedy capitalists' if left entirely to themselves, the new leaders are seeking to check the damage these 'capitalists' could do to the still-poor majority, to the stability and harmony the country needs, and ultimately to the physical environment in which the 1.3 billion and more will have to live. So there are always enough representatives of both stereotypes to make it seem that the Chinese are either one or the other. But it is misleading to stress these stereotypes. My reading of China's past and present suggest that the Chinese are no different from other peoples in having the vast majority of them somewhere in between the two extremes.

Despite the seeming cultural and ethnic coherence, the Chinese have always been very diverse in their religious beliefs (Taoism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity), philosophical attitudes (Confucianism, Taoism, legalism) and modern ideologies (liberalism, nationalism, socialism and communism). What make Chinese so eager and consistent in their attempts to seach for a worldview and faith?

China is an old and complex civilisation, rich in variety and difference. Hence, from very early on, there has been the perceived need for a more or less coherent and consistent body of knowledge that could bring these diverse elements together for the purposes of a kind of 'state building' or 'civlisation-building'. Given the size of the country, and the rather simple means of communication until the second half of the 20th century, it wasalways difficult to achieve a truly deep comonality among most Chinese.

A popular mix of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism was probably the nearest thing to that commonality, but this was so only by being inclusive and not divisively defined. This is now true of the attitudes towards modern ideologies as well. Thus, China may well end up with a new worldview peculiar to itself (I would hesitate to call this any kind of 'faith'), in which these ideologies are all diluted and mixed together with the various viable elements of traditional religious practices and philosophical ideas.

Western intrusion into the crumbling Chinese empire in the late 19th century is now often condemned in toto as being imperialistic and predatory by official scholars and publicists in China. However, for two or three generations of Chinese intellectuals beginning with Dr Sun Yat Sen and Professor Lin Yutang, Western ideas and forces were also seen as modernising energies that helped to break down feudal cultures, power structures and social as well as personal relationships. What are the negative and positive sides of Western modernity and modernisation in China in the last 100 years or so?

I don't think that the educated Chinese of the 20th century have ever denied the importance of Western ideas for the country's modernisation. On the contrary, most of them have welcomed these ideas as refreshing and valuable. What they have condemned are Western political dominance and racial arrogance and the West's contempt for a weak China. Now that this is less prevalent, those residual elements in the West who regret their loss of dominance would do anything to try and perpetuate their control of the world.

Most Chinese greatly admire modern scientific and technological acheivements (most notably in medicine and communications) and enjoy the fruits of cultural progress that modernity has brought, such as closer attention to the law and rational bureacratic practices, rights for women and children, awareness of pollution and environmental degradation, ideals of freedom and equality, etc.

The tensions between the ideas and forces of modernity and tradition in China have been intense and sometimes bloody, producing conflicts like the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, May Fourth Movement in 1919 and Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in the 1960s. Do you see essentially similar struggles now being waged within the Islamic world?

Of your three examples, the first two may have something to do with the tensions between tradition and modernity. The third, the Cultural Revolution, is more about the tensions between rival power groups and the failures of revolutionary systems. I hesitate to compare any of these with what the Islamic world is facing.

Islam represents a powerful religious ideology centred on the oneness and sacredness of Allah, something that has no equivalent in China. It seems to me that what Islam is going through is more like what Christianity went through in the Middle Ages to the Reformation and the Enlightenment than anything in Chinese history. But Islam is different enough even from medieval Christianity for the comparison not to be taken too far.

In short, we should not expect the outcome to be the same even if the struggles and tensions seem to be similar. For one thing, lots of history has come in between. The impact of post-enlightenment Europe has left scars on Islam that are unique and how the religion copes with these requires bold leadership and fresh thinking that the fact of globalisation has made difficult for [the] modernising Muslim elite to achieve together.

For those who wish to learn more about Chinese history, especially modern history in a non-academic manner, what are the good books you recommend?

I am not able to answer this fairly. My personal view is that the good books written in English are addressed to a Western audience and appeal to their line of questioning and kinds of interest. I believe that I can enjoy reading them only because I also read the good histories written in Chinese that ask different kinds of questions and emphasise different interests.